# Australian Energy Update 2023

### September 2023


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### Acknowledgements

The authors would like to express their appreciation for the assistance and support provided by colleagues in
the Department of Industry, Science and Resources, the Clean Energy Regulator, the Bureau of Infrastructure
and Transport Research Economics, and the Australian Bureau of Statistics.

The Department acknowledges the traditional owners of country throughout Australia and their continuing
connection to land, sea and community. We pay our respects to them and their cultures and to their elders both
past and present.

### Copyright and disclaimer

Content contained herein should be attributed as Australian Energy Update 2023, Australian Government
Department of Climate Change, Energy, the Environment and Water, September, Canberra.

Cover image: Aerial view above Royalla Solar Farm near Canberra, ACT, Australia. Steve Tritton / Shutterstock.

**© Commonwealth of Australia 2023**

Unless otherwise noted, copyright (and any other intellectual property rights, if any) in this publication is owned
by the Commonwealth of Australia.

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**Attribution**

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The Australian Government as represented by the Department of Climate Change, Energy, the Environment and
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does not indicate commitment by the Australian Government to a particular course of action.


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## Foreword

The way we supply and use energy in Australia continues to transform, and at an increasing rate. This
includes transformational changes in the type of energy we use, how we use it and where it comes
from. Change comes as new technologies are adopted and renewable energy supply grows, as our
economy changes, and as awareness of our energy use and its economic cost and impact on the
climate grows.

We need timely, accurate, comprehensive, comparable and readily accessible energy statistics to help
understand these and other changes. We need this understanding to plan for Australia’s energy
future, and to make sound policy and investment decisions, including action to address global climate
change.

The Australian Energy Statistics is the authoritative and official source of energy statistics for Australia
to support decision making and international reporting, and to help understand how our energy
supply and use is changing. It is updated each year and consists of detailed historical energy
consumption, production and trade statistics and balances. It includes all types of energy and all parts
of the economy.

This edition contains data to financial year 2021–22 for Australian energy consumption, production
and trade, and calendar year 2022 for electricity generation. This report, the full dataset, and a guide
are available online. Release of the 2024 edition, containing data for financial year 2022–23, is
expected in September 2024. An intervening release of updated electricity generation data is expected
in the first half of 2024.

Australia’s energy consumption fell in 2021–22, for a third successive year. Energy use in electricity
supply decreased as coal generation fell below half of total generation. With the easing of COVD-19
restrictions across the period and more hot and cold weather, residential, commercial and air
transport energy use all increased, though passenger road transport activity fell again.

2021–22 was a record year for Australia’s clean energy supply and renewable generation increased 19
per cent, accounting for 31 per cent of Australia’s electricity generation. Solar electricity generation
grew 25 per cent in the 2021–22 year and is 14 times higher than a decade ago.

For more information or to provide feedback regarding the Australian Energy Statistics, please contact
energy.statistics@dcceew.gov.au.

Energy Statistics and Analysis Section
National Energy Transformation Division
Department of Climate Change, Energy, the Environment and Water
September 2023


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## Contents

Executive summary ................................................................................................................................. 1

About the Australian Energy Statistics .................................................................................................... 4

Energy consumption ............................................................................................................................... 6

Energy productivity ............................................................................................................................. 6

Energy consumption, by fuel type ...................................................................................................... 7

Energy consumption, by sector ........................................................................................................ 11

Final energy consumption ................................................................................................................. 20

Energy consumption, by state and territory ..................................................................................... 22

Energy production................................................................................................................................. 26

Primary production ........................................................................................................................... 26

Electricity generation ........................................................................................................................ 28

The National Electricity Market ........................................................................................................ 34

Estimated electricity generation in calendar year 2022 ................................................................... 36

Energy trade .......................................................................................................................................... 39

Exports .............................................................................................................................................. 39

Imports .............................................................................................................................................. 42

References ............................................................................................................................................ 44


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## Figures

Figure 1 Australian energy intensity and energy productivity ................................................................ 6

Figure 2 Australian energy consumption, by fuel type ........................................................................... 8
Figure 3 Australian natural gas flows, petajoules, 2021–22 ................................................................... 9
Figure 4 Australian energy consumption, by sector ............................................................................. 12
Figure 5 Australian transport energy consumption, by major fuel type .............................................. 13
Figure 6 Monthly aviation passenger numbers, domestic and international inbound and outbound 14
Figure 7 Australian motor vehicle registrations, by fuel type............................................................... 15
Figure 8 Index of annual kilometres travelled, selected vehicle types ................................................. 15
Figure 9 Australian energy consumption in mining .............................................................................. 18
Figure 10 Energy use in commercial and services sector and residential sector ................................. 19
Figure 11 Australian final energy consumption, refined products and electricity ............................... 21
Figure 12 Australian energy mix, by state and territory, 2021–22 ....................................................... 24
Figure 13 Australian energy consumption growth, selected states and territories ............................. 25
Figure 14 Australian energy balance ..................................................................................................... 27

Figure 15 Australian energy production, by fuel type .......................................................................... 28
Figure 16 Australian electricity generation ........................................................................................... 30

Figure 17 Australian electricity generation fuel mix ............................................................................. 30

Figure 18 Australian electricity generation from renewable sources, by fuel ...................................... 31

Figure 19 Cumulative capacity of accredited large-scale solar power stations .................................... 32

Figure 20 Australian electricity generation, by industry, 2021–22 ....................................................... 33

Figure 21 National Electricity Market metered electricity generation fuel mix ................................... 35
Figure 22 Australian electricity generation share from renewable sources ......................................... 37

Figure 23 Australian electricity generation fuel mix, calendar year 2022 ............................................ 38
Figure 24 Australian energy trade, 2021–22 ........................................................................................ 40
Figure 25 Australian energy exports, by fuel type ................................................................................ 40
Figure 26 Australian uranium exports .................................................................................................. 41
Figure 27 Australian energy imports, by fuel type................................................................................ 43
Figure 28 Share of imports in total consumption of crude and refined products ................................ 43


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## Tables

Table 1 2023 Australian Energy Statistics tables .................................................................................... 5
Table 2 Australian population, GDP, and energy consumption .............................................................. 7

Table 3 Australian energy consumption, by fuel type ............................................................................ 7
Table 4 Australian renewable energy consumption, by fuel type ........................................................ 10
Table 5 Australian energy consumption, by sector .............................................................................. 11
Table 6 Australian transport energy consumption, by subsector......................................................... 12
Table 7 Australian manufacturing energy consumption, by subsector ................................................ 16
Table 8 Australian mining energy consumption, by subsector ............................................................. 17

Table 9 Australian total final energy consumption, by fuel .................................................................. 20
Table 10 Australian total final energy consumption, by industry ......................................................... 22

Table 11 Australian energy consumption, by state and territory ......................................................... 22

Table 12 Australian energy production, by fuel type ........................................................................... 26
Table 13 Australian electricity generation, by fuel type ....................................................................... 29
Table 14 National Electricity Market metered electricity generation, by fuel type ............................. 34
Table 15 Australian electricity generation, by fuel type, calendar year 2022 ...................................... 36
Table 16 Australian energy exports, by fuel type ................................................................................. 39
Table 17 Australian energy imports, by fuel type ................................................................................. 42


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## Abbreviations and acronyms

ABARES Australian Bureau of Agricultural and Resource Economics and Sciences

ABS Australian Bureau of Statistics

AEMO Australian Energy Market Operator

AES Australian Energy Statistics

APS Australian Petroleum Statistics

BITRE Bureau of Infrastructure and Transport Research Economics

BREE Bureau of Resources and Energy Economics (former)

COVID-19 Coronavirus disease 2019

CSG Coal seam gas

DISR Department of Industry, Science and Resources

DCCEEW Department of Climate Change, Energy, the Environment and Water

GJ Gigajoule (10[9] joules)

GWh Gigawatt hours

GDP Gross domestic product

IEA International Energy Agency

LNG Liquefied natural gas

LPG Liquefied petroleum gas

NGERS National Greenhouse and Energy Reporting Scheme

NGL Natural gas liquids

ORF Other refinery feedstock

OCE Office of the Chief Economist

PJ Petajoule (10[15] joules)

PV Photovoltaic


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## Executive summary

-  Australia’s energy consumption fell slightly in 2021–22, a third successive decline

-  Over two-thirds Australian energy production is exported, including most coal and gas

-  Renewable electricity generation at record levels, almost one third of all electricity

-  Transport energy use increased with air transport recovery, road use still down

-  The imported share of refined petroleum product consumption rose to record levels


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### Energy consumption

-  The Australian economy grew 3.6 per cent in 2021–22 to $2.2 trillion. Population grew 1.2 per
cent to reach 26.0 million people.

-  Australia’s energy consumption fell slightly, 0.1 per cent in 2021–22 to 5,762 petajoules, the
third successive year of decreased total energy consumption. After record declines the
previous two years, energy consumption is 7 per cent below the all-time peak of
6,188 petajoules reached in 2018-19.

-  The drop in energy consumption from three years ago has been 426 petajoules: the same
amount of energy obtained from filling a 55-litre tank of petrol 227 million times.

-  Energy productivity is on the rise. Energy productivity, as measured by gross domestic product
(GDP) divided by energy consumption, improved 3.7 per cent in 2021–22 and 28 per cent over
the past ten years. Australia now creates $374 million in GDP for every petajoule of energy
consumed, 22 per cent more than a decade ago.

-  The largest reduction in energy use in 2021–22 occurred in the electricity supply sector, which
reduced 3 per cent, as increased renewables generation reduced the consumption of fossil
fuels in the sector. Consumption in the electricity sector refers to fuel inputs, network losses
and own-consumption of electricity.

-  Total final energy consumption, or total demand by end users, increased 1 per cent. Higher
final consumption of renewable electricity more than covered this increase in total final
consumption in 2021–22.

-  The largest increase in energy consumption was in the transport sector, which grew 2 per cent
as air transport activity increased by one-third, offsetting lower road transport activity,
including the lowest level of petrol consumption since the 1970s.

-  Energy consumption in the electricity supply sector, and in transport, were each about 25 per
cent of all energy use. Manufacturing was 18 per cent of use, and mining 15 per cent.

-  Energy use grew 3 per cent in the commercial and services sector and the residential sector,
mostly due to increased electricity demand for heating and cooling.

-  Manufacturing sector energy use decreased 1 per cent, driven by reduced alumina and
aluminium production and lower chemicals manufacturing activity.

-  Coal consumption fell 4 per cent in 2021–22, in line with the continued long-term decline in
coal-fired electricity generation, which constitutes about 88 per cent of all domestic coal use.

-  Oil remained Australia’s largest source of primary energy consumption, at 37 per cent of the
total, and gas use remained steady at 27 per cent of the primary energy mix.

### Energy production

-  Energy production rose 1 per cent in 2021–22 to 19,111 petajoules, mainly driven by an
increase in natural gas production.

-  Natural gas production rose 6 per cent to 6,076 petajoules in 2021–22, as the year was less
impacted by COVID-19 and by scheduled outages and maintenance.

-  Black coal production was 11,216 petajoules (417 million tonnes), remaining by far Australia’s
largest contributor to energy production, despite being hampered in the last two years by
heavy rainfall causing pit flooding and damaging transport infrastructure.

-  Crude oil and condensate production grew 1 per cent in 2021–22, and naturally-occurring LPG
production rose 15 per cent. LPG in Australia is often produced alongside natural gas and so
increased production also led to increased LPG output.


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-  Renewables production increased 10 per cent, due to the rapid expansion of solar and wind
electricity production, while biomass production fell with a smaller sugar harvest.

### Electricity generation

-  Total electricity generation in Australia rose 2 per cent in 2021–22 to around 272 terawatt
hours (978 petajoules). This figure includes industrial, rooftop solar PV and off-grid
generation.

-  Renewable generation increased 19 per cent in 2021–22, contributing 31 per cent of total
generation (84 terawatt hours), an increase of four percentage points. Generation within the
National Electricity Market, Australia’s main grid, was 33 per cent renewables in 2021–22.

-  Renewable generation in Australia grew further in calendar year 2022, to 32 per cent of total
generation (88 terawatt hours), the highest on record. In calendar year 2022, solar generation
constituted 14 per cent of total generation and wind 11 per cent.

-  The share of renewable generation now well surpasses the historical peak of 26 per cent (9
terawatt hours), which was recorded in 1964–65 as the Snowy Mountains hydro-electric
scheme came progressively online. Australia’s 88 terawatt hours of renewable generation in
2022 is about 10 times higher than this figure in absolute terms.

-  About 19 per cent of Australia’s electricity was generated outside the electricity sector by
industry and households in 2021–22, including 10 per cent by the mining and manufacturing
sectors and 8 per cent from small-scale solar PV.

-  Fossil fuel generation fell 4 per cent in 2021–22, with a 5 per cent decline in coal-fired
generation and 1 per cent drop in gas-fired generation.

-  Natural gas-fired generation in 2021–22 fell nationally to the lowest level in a decade, and in
the southern and eastern states which constitute the National Electricity Market, fell to the
lowest level seen since the early 2000s. There was a partial rebound in the second half of
2022, but not a full return to previous levels.

-  Coal-fired generation fell below half of all generation, to 49 per cent in 2021–22 and
47 per cent in calendar year 2022. This compares to a 68 per cent share a decade ago.

### Energy trade

-  The majority of Australia’s energy production is exported and Australia exports much more
energy than it imports. Net exports (exports minus imports) were equal to 71 per cent of
production in 2021–22.

-  Energy exports rose 1 per cent in 2021–22 to 15,623 petajoules. This was due to increased
natural gas exports, which rose 7 per cent.

-  The 7 per cent rise in LNG exports to 4,637 petajoules was due to fewer outages, higher postlockdown demand in Asian markets, and the Russian invasion of Ukraine impacting Russian
exports. LNG exports grew an average of 16 per cent per year over the last decade.

-  Exports of crude oil/condensate and LPG, both partially sourced from the gas extraction sites
which experienced production rebounds, rose 5 and 16 per cent respectively.

-  Black coal exports fell 1 per cent, the result of China’s restrictions on Australian coal imports
and continued issues with floods and storm damage.

-  Energy imports rose 1 per cent to 2,129 petajoules in 2021–22.

-  Refinery closures saw crude oil imports fall 29 per cent while refined product imports rose
17 per cent to replace refinery output. The share of consumption of refined petroleum
products met by imports, 74 per cent, was the highest on record.


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## About the Australian Energy Statistics

The Australian Energy Statistics (AES) is the authoritative and official source of annual energy statistics
for Australia, covering all types of energy and all parts of the economy. It provides information
designed to increase the understanding of energy supply and use in Australia, to support decision
making in government, industry and more broadly, and to meet annual international energy reporting
obligations. AES data also supports the calculation of greenhouse gas emissions from energy supply
and use.

The AES provides detailed energy consumption, production and trade statistics and balances, by state
and territory, by energy type and by industry, in energy content units and volume or mass units.
Concepts, definitions and presentation align as closely as possible with the framework used by the
International Energy Agency (IEA).

Key data sources include facility level reporting from the National Greenhouse and Energy Reporting
_Scheme (NGERS); the_ _Australian Petroleum Statistics (APS); the_ _Resources and Energy Quarterly;_
datasets and estimates from other Australian and state government agencies; internal estimates using
statistical techniques; and public company reporting. Some datasets from private subscription services
and industry associations are also used to compare with these estimates and sources.

The AES has been published by the Department of Climate Change, Energy, the Environment and
Water (DCCEEW) (2022 to 2023); the Department of Industry, Science, Energy and Resources (2020 to
2021); the Department of the Environment and Energy (2017 to 2019); the Department of Industry,
Innovation and Science (2015 and 2016); the Bureau of Resources and Energy Economics (BREE) (2012
to 2014); the Australian Bureau of Agricultural and Resources Economics and Sciences (ABARES) (1989
to 2011); and various previous Australian government agencies; since the mid-1970s.

The AES dataset is available online in Excel format. A list of the AES Excel tables available on the
energy.gov.au website is provided in Table 1. An energy flows schematic is also available on the
website.

This report, the Australian Energy Update, highlights recent trends in Australian energy consumption,
production, and trade.

The _Guide to the Australian Energy Statistics assists users in better understanding the AES and_
supports the transparency of the dataset. It contains information on definitions and concepts, data
sources and methodology, conversion factors, confidentiality, and historical revisions.

The main unit in the AES is the petajoule (PJ). One petajoule = 1 x 10[15] joules. One petajoule, or
278 gigawatt hours, is the heat energy content of about 43,000 tonnes of black coal or 29 million litres
of petrol. One petajoule is equivalent to filling up a car with a fuel tank capacity of 55 litres of petrol
around 532,000 times. A car using 6 litres of petrol per hundred kilometres could drive approximately
483 million kilometres on one petajoule, more than three times the distance from the Sun to the Earth.


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|Table 1 2023 Australian Energy Statistics tables|Col2|
|---|---|
|Table name Table contents||
|Table A|Australian energy supply and consumption, energy units|
|Table B|Australian population, GDP and energy consumption, by state and territory|
|Table C|Australian energy consumption, by state and territory, by fuel, energy units|
|Table D|Australian energy consumption, by state and territory, by detailed fuel, energy units|
|Table E|Australian energy consumption, by state and territory, by industry, energy units|
|Table F|Australian energy consumption, by state and territory, by industry and fuel type, energy units|
|Table G|Australian energy consumption, by state and territory, by fuel, physical units|
|Table H|Australian total final energy consumption, by industry, by fuel, energy units|
|Table I|Australian production of primary fuels, by state and territory, physical units|
|Table J|Australian energy supply and trade, by fuel type, energy units|
|Table K|Australian energy consumption in 2021–22, by state and territory, by industry, selected fuels, energy units|
|Table L|Australian consumption of electricity, by state and territory, physical units|
|Table M|Australian energy imports, by fuel type, physical units|
|Table N|Australian energy exports, by fuel type, physical units|
|Table O|Australian electricity generation, by state and territory, by fuel type, physical units|
|Table P|Australian consumption and production of coal, by state and territory, physical units|
|Table Q|Australian consumption and production of gas, by state and territory|
|Table R|Australian renewables consumption, energy units|
|Table S|Australian production and exports of uranium, physical and energy units|


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## Energy consumption

Energy consumption measures the amount of energy used in the Australian economy. It includes
energy consumed in energy conversion activities (such as electricity generation and petroleum
refining), but nets off derived or secondary fuels produced domestically (such as electricity and refined
oil products) to avoid double counting of energy. It is equivalent to total primary energy supply. It is
equal to domestic production plus imports minus exports (and changes in stocks). Further detail is
provided in Department of Climate Change, Energy, the Environment and Water (2023) Guide to the
_Australian Energy Statistics._

Energy consumption fell 0.1 per cent in 2021–22 to 5,762 petajoules, the third successive year of
decline and down 7 per cent from the all-time peak of 6,188 petajoules reached in 2018-19. The drop
in energy consumption from three years ago, 426 petajoules, is the same amount of energy obtained
from filling a 55-litre tank of petrol 227 million times.

In 2021–22, the Australian economy grew 3.6 per cent to $2.2 trillion. Population grew 1.2 per cent to
reach 26.0 million people.

### Energy productivity

The relationship between energy use and economic output can be described in terms of the energy
intensity, or inversely, the energy productivity, of the Australian economy. Energy intensity measures
the amount of energy used to produce a unit of economic output (energy consumption/GDP), while
energy productivity measures the amount of economic output produced per unit of energy input
(GDP/energy consumption).

#### Figure 1 Australian energy intensity and energy productivity

_Source: DCCEEW (2023) Australian Energy Statistics, Table B_


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|Table 2 Australian population, GDP, and energy consumption|Col2|Col3|Col4|Col5|
|---|---|---|---|---|
|2011–12 2021–22 2021–22 10 year growth (per average annual cent) growth (per cent)|||||
|Population (millions)|22.7|26.0|1.2|1.4|
|GDP ($ billion)|1,714.9|2,155.7|3.6|2.3|
|Energy consumption (PJ)|5,888.4|5,762.1|-0.1|-0.2|
|Energy consumption per capita (GJ)|259.0|221.6|-1.3|-1.5|
|Energy intensity (GJ/$ million)|3,433.8|2,673.0|-3.6|-2.5|
|Energy productivity ($ million/PJ)|291.2|374.1|3.7|2.5|


_Source: DCCEEW (2023) Australian Energy Statistics, Table B, and Australian Bureau of Statistics (2023)_

The Australian economy has shown lower energy intensity and higher energy productivity over time,
as economic growth in Australia over recent decades has generally outpaced growth in energy
consumption (Figure 1). This reflects cumulative improvements in energy efficiency as well as a shift
in the Australian economy away from highly energy-intensive industries such as manufacturing
towards less energy-intensive industries such as services. Increased use of renewable energy instead
of fossil fuels for electricity generation has also had a positive impact on energy productivity.

Energy productivity improved 3.7 per cent in 2021–22 and 28 per cent over the past ten years (Table
2). Australia now creates $374 million in GDP for every petajoule of energy consumed, which is
$83 million more than a decade ago. Put another way, Australia uses 22 per cent less energy per dollar
of economic output than a decade ago. Australia also uses 14 per cent less energy per person than a
decade ago.

### Energy consumption, by fuel type

Fossil fuels (coal, oil and natural gas) accounted for 91 per cent of Australia’s primary energy mix in
2021–22. Oil, including crude oil, liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) and refined products, accounted for
the largest share of energy consumption, at 37 per cent in 2021–22 (Table 3) with coal at 28 per cent
and natural gas at 27 per cent.

|Table 3 Australian energy consumption, by fuel type|Col2|Col3|Col4|Col5|
|---|---|---|---|---|
|2021–22 PJ 2021–22 share 2021–22 growth 10 year (per cent) (per cent) average annual growth (per cent)|||||
|Oil|2,103.4|36.5|1.0|-0.4|
|Coal|1,586.8|27.5|-4.5|-2.6|
|Gas|1,559.3|27.1|-0.1|1.5|
|Renewables|512.5|8.9|10.3|5.7|
|Total|5,762.1|100.0|-0.1|-0.2|



_Source: DCCEEW (2023) Australian Energy Statistics, Table C_


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Oil consumption includes domestic and imported crude used by Australian refineries, and imported
refined products used by industry and households, but nets off refined products produced
domestically to avoid double counting of energy.

Oil consumption increased 1 per cent in 2021–22 (Table 3), after two successive large declines,
remaining substantially below pre-pandemic levels of consumption.

#### Figure 2 Australian energy consumption, by fuel type

_Source: DCCEEW (2023) Australian Energy Statistics, Table C_

Coal remained the second largest fuel consumed in 2021–22 (Figure 2). Domestic coal consumption
fell 4 per cent in 2021–22, more than the average ten-year rate of decline of 3 per cent.

Lower coal-fired electricity generation has driven this continued decline, with this activity accounting
for most of Australia’s domestic coal consumption. The other notable usage of coal is in Iron and steel
production, and this has remained mostly steady across the same period. Declining domestic
consumption of coal stands in contrast to trends in production and exports, discussed in subsequent
sections of this publication.

Natural gas accounted for 27 per cent of energy consumption in 2021–22. Gas consumption remained
steady with lower gas-fired electricity generation and alumina refining activity offset by increased gas
consumption at LNG plants.

Around 33 per cent (520 petajoules) of Australia’s gas consumption in 2021–22 was used for electricity
generation, the majority of which was by gas-fired power plants and the remainder undertaken by
businesses in other industries. Gas-fired generation by industry includes generation at smelters,
metals refineries and mines, as well as unprocessed natural gas used to generate electricity during the
gas production and gas liquefication processes. All such self-generation by industry is, by international
statistical convention, included in the electricity supply activity sector in the Australian Energy


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Statistics, rather than to the original industry such as mining and manufacturing. Figure 3, by contrast,
illustrates these different components assigned to their original industries of ownership.

#### Figure 3 Australian natural gas flows, petajoules, 2021–22

_Note: Components may not sum due to rounding. Gas power plants include some generation by other economic sectors._

_Source: DCCEEW (2023) Australian Energy Statistics, Tables A and F and internal sources_

When on-site electricity generation use is included, mining (including LNG plants) accounted for about
33 per cent of Australian domestic gas use in 2021–22 with 29 per cent (450 petajoules) of Australian
natural gas consumption occurring at LNG plants. This consumption only includes the gas actually
consumed at LNG plants, and does not include the proportion exported as LNG.

Manufacturing accounted for 25 per cent (396 petajoules) of Australian domestic gas use in
2021–22, when on-site electricity generation is included. Of this, around 65 petajoules was used for
non-energy purposes, such as feedstock for chemicals production (Figure 3).

Gas remains by far the largest source of energy for end consumers of energy within the manufacturing
sector, accounting for 42 per cent of manufacturing final energy use in 2021–22. The gas share of
energy use in the sector has been steady at around 40 per cent for two decades despite industry
structure and reduced energy consumption activity. Final Energy Consumption, ie, consumption by
end users, is discussed more comprehensively further below.

Renewable energy sources accounted for the remaining 9 per cent of Australian energy consumption
in 2021–22. Renewable energy consumption comprises mainly biomass, hydro, wind and solar energy.
In 2021–22, renewable energy consumption rose 10 per cent, due to strong growth in solar and wind
(Table 4).

Renewable energy use includes energy used for electricity generation as well as various direct uses of
renewable fuels such as firewood for residential heating, bagasse (sugar cane waste) combustion for
heat in manufacturing, and solar hot water.


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|Table 4 Australian renewable energy consumption, by fuel type|Col2|Col3|Col4|Col5|
|---|---|---|---|---|
|2021–22 PJ 2021–22 2021–22 10 year share growth average (per cent) (per cent) annual growth (per cent)|||||
|Biomass|171.0|33.4|-1.5|0.2|
|- wood and othera|86.6|16.9|1.1|0.4|
|- bagasse|84.4|16.5|-4.0|0.0|
|Municipal and industrial waste|4.7|0.9|1.0|na|
|Biogas|18.5|3.6|4.9|2.0|
|- landfill gas|13.9|2.7|5.3|na|
|- other biogas|4.6|0.9|3.8|na|
|Biofuels|6.1|1.2|-1.8|-7.0|
|- ethanol|4.8|0.9|-2.2|na|
|- biodiesel|0.2|0.0|33.1|na|
|- other liquid biofuels|1.2|0.2|-3.6|na|
|Wind|104.8|20.4|18.6|15.4|
|Hydro|61.2|11.9|11.9|1.9|
|Solar PV|124.9|24.4|25.1|29.8|
|Solar hot water|21.3|4.2|8.4|5.6|
|Total|512.5|100.0|10.3|5.7|


_Notes: a includes wood waste, charcoal, sulphite lyes and other biomass_

_na – not available_

_Source: DCCEEW (2023) Australian Energy Statistics, Table R_

Renewable energy used for electricity generation increased 17 per cent while direct use of renewables
was steady in 2021–22. This continues the long-term trend, where all substantial growth in renewable
energy activity is for electricity generation rather than direct use. In 2021–22 electricity supply
accounted for 65 per cent of total Australian renewable energy use, up from 38 per cent a decade ago.

Consumption of bagasse, the remnant sugar cane pulp left after crushing, fell 4 per cent in 2021–22
due to a smaller sugar crop in the 2021 season (ASMC 2023). Bagasse has long been a significant source
of renewable energy in Australia for direct heat and for electricity production, comprising 16 per cent
of total renewable energy use in 2021–22.

Wind and solar energy use have grown rapidly in the past decade, and combined were 49 per cent of
all renewable energy consumption in 2021–22, up from 16 per cent a decade ago. Solar PV has grown
from negligible levels in the mid-2000s to 125 petajoules in 2021–22, growing 25 per cent in the most
recent year.

In addition to ongoing rooftop solar PV expansion, the last five years have seen large-scale solar PV
power generation grow almost 20-fold.


-----

Wind energy use grew 19 per cent in 2021–22, higher than 15 per cent growth per year over the last
decade. Hydro energy has been broadly stable over time, but grew 12 per cent in 2021–22 due to
wetter weather and more favourable selling conditions for hydro generators (AEMO 2022).

Solid municipal and industrial waste can be used to generate electricity or direct heat, and provided
around 5 petajoules of energy in 2021–22. Biogas from landfill, sewerage and other sources provided
a further 18 petajoules of energy in 2021–22, most used for electricity generation.

### Energy consumption, by sector

The electricity supply, transport, and manufacturing sectors collectively accounted for over two-thirds
of energy consumption in 2021–22 (Table 5).

|Table 5 Australian energy consumption, by sector|Col2|Col3|Col4|Col5|
|---|---|---|---|---|
|2021–22 2021–22 share 2021–22 growth 10 year (per cent) (per cent) average annual PJ growth (per cent)|||||
|Transport|1,445.3|25.1|1.8|-0.7|
|Electricity supply|1,417.4|24.6|-3.3|-2.0|
|Manufacturing|1,016.4|17.6|-1.5|-1.8|
|Mining|865.9|15.0|1.8|6.8|
|Residential|497.7|8.6|2.8|0.9|
|Commercial|296.1|5.1|2.8|0.3|
|Agriculture|114.6|2.0|-3.5|1.6|
|Construction|37.2|0.6|-3.5|1.7|
|Water and waste|17.8|0.3|-5.7|1.4|
|Other|53.6|0.9|-0.9|-2.1|
|Total|5,762.1|100.0|-0.1|-0.2|



_Source: DCCEEW (2023) Australian Energy Statistics, Table E_

The electricity supply sector accounted for 25 per cent of energy consumption in 2021–22. Energy
consumption in this sector (including fuel inputs to electricity generation, own use of electricity, and
losses) declined 3 per cent despite increased electricity generation. Lower consumption in the
electricity supply sector reflects a shift from fossil fuel generation with thermal losses to non-thermal
renewable generation sources with no fuel losses.

When measuring primary energy consumption, a change in thermal electricity generation has a
greater effect than a change in some renewable generation such as wind, solar and hydro, because
the energy of these renewables is measured when turned into electricity.

For example, if wind generation rises by 1,000 gigawatt hours, then energy consumption would rise
by 3.6 petajoules, because the electricity generated is measured. If coal-fired generation rises by
1,000 gigawatt hours, then energy consumption would increase by the amount of coal consumed to
generate the electricity, which would be around 10 petajoules (assuming an efficiency of 35 per cent).


-----

#### Figure 4 Australian energy consumption, by sector

_Source: DCCEEW (2023) Australian Energy Statistics, Table E_

Transport energy consumption rose 1.8 per cent in 2021–22 (Table 6) with air transport and to a lesser
extent water transport offsetting a continued decline in road transport consumption. The energy use
of the transport sector has been especially volatile in the last three years, influenced by domestic and
international travel restrictions and the change in work and consumption patterns induced by the
COVID-19 pandemic.

|Table 6 Australian transport energy consumption, by subsector|Col2|Col3|Col4|Col5|
|---|---|---|---|---|
|2021–22 PJ 2021–22 share 2021–22 growth 10 year (per cent) (per cent) average annual growth (per cent)|||||
|Road|1,114.7|77.1|-2.5|-0.3|
|Air|168.0|11.6|32.8|-4.7|
|Rail|63.5|4.4|-1.2|3.0|
|Water|58.0|4.0|22.3|-0.3|
|Other|41.0|2.8|8.6|5.9|
|Total|1,445.3|100.0|1.8|-0.7|



_Source: DCCEEW (2023) Australian Energy Statistics, Table F_


-----

#### Figure 5 Australian transport energy consumption, by major fuel type

_Source: DCCEEW (2023) Australian Energy Statistics, Table F_

Air transport energy use, nearly all aviation turbine fuel, rose 33 per cent on the previous year but
remained at about half the pre-pandemic levels seen in 2018–19 (Figure 5). Air transport energy use
includes fuel supplied at Australian airports to international flights.

Air transport activity has been severely impacted by the COVID-19 pandemic, with recovery across
2022 still not returning the sector to pre-pandemic activity levels. Monthly international short-term
visitor and short-term resident arrivals each shrank to a few thousand per month in mid-2020, after
each peaking above one million per month in December of the years leading up to 2020 (ABS 2023b).

International passenger movements were far slower to rebound than domestic flights even as
restrictions on inbound travel eased, and across 2022 they remained low compared to pre-pandemic
levels, though returned to about half 2019 levels by the end of 2022 (Figure 6).

Domestic aviation activity levels fell dramatically during periods of widespread lockdown and border
closures in Australia, fluctuating as restrictions and circumstances changed across 2020 and 2021.
Passenger movements in the first 12 months of the pandemic were very reduced but by mid-2022,
after state borders had re-opened, had returned to above 4 million domestic passengers a month, at
the level of activity observed in quieter pre-pandemic months.


-----

#### Figure 6 Monthly aviation passenger numbers, domestic and international inbound and outbound

_Source: Bureau of Infrastructure and Transport Research Economics (2023) Aviation Statistics_

Road transport comprised just over three-quarters of total transport energy consumption in 2021–22
but fell on the previous year, due to 8 per cent lower petrol use. Petrol use was 19 per cent lower than
the pre-pandemic 2018–19 level, and total petrol use in Australia was at its lowest level since the
1970s. A key factor in the decline of petrol use is the net effect of various COVID-19 border and
lockdown policies, as well as ongoing mode of work changes with greater working from home levels
resulting in fewer car journeys to workplaces.

There has also been a longer-term pattern of switching to diesel vehicles by households. Australia’s
diesel vehicle stocks (including non, light commercial and freight) have more than doubled in size since
2011, to 5.3 million vehicles in 2021 (ABS 2021) (Figure 7). Fuel efficiency has also, over time, limited
the growth of road transport fuel consumption, with petrol use per kilometre decreasing about 14 per
cent from pre-2004 to post-2015 manufactured vehicles (ABS 2020).

Freight activity remained essentially unaffected through the pandemic. Truck vehicle kilometres grew
about 2 per cent each year while passenger vehicle kilometres fell away 4 per cent in 2021–22, to now
be 11 per cent below pre-pandemic levels (Figure 8).


-----

#### Figure 7 Australian motor vehicle registrations, by fuel type

_Source: Australian Bureau of Statistics (2021) Motor Vehicle Census, Australia, 31 Jan 2020_

#### Figure 8 Index of annual kilometres travelled, selected vehicle types

_Source: Bureau of Infrastructure and Transport Research Economics (2022) Australian Infrastructure Statistics—Yearbook_
_2022_


-----

|Table 7 Australian manufacturing energy consumption, by subsector|Col2|Col3|Col4|Col5|
|---|---|---|---|---|
|2021–22 PJ 2021–22 share 2021–22 10 year (per cent) growth average annual (per cent) growth (per cent)|||||
|Non-ferrous metals|333.0|32.8|-2.8|-1.9|
|Chemicals|187.6|18.5|-4.2|-1.7|
|Food, beverages, tobacco|143.2|14.1|-0.5|-0.5|
|Ferrous metals|115.8|11.4|-0.1|-1.2|
|Petroleum refininga|61.8|6.1|-0.2|-2.9|
|Wood, paper and printing|52.5|5.2|0.5|-1.1|
|Cement|49.7|4.9|-0.3|-2.8|
|Other|72.9|7.2|5.2|-3.1|
|Totalb|1,016.4|100.0|-1.5|-1.8|


_Notes: a Energy consumption in petroleum refining equals total energy consumption (feedstock and own use) minus derived_
_fuel production. The derived fuel production is netted off to avoid double counting of this energy in other sectors._

_b Consumption excludes consumption for generation of electricity, which is recorded in the electricity supply sector._

_Source: DCCEEW (2023) Australian Energy Statistics, Table F_

Energy consumption in the manufacturing sector fell 1.5 per cent, in 2021–22 (Table 7), with the
decline concentrated in the two largest energy using sectors of non-ferrous metals and chemicals
production. Use of all broad energy groups, including natural gas, electricity, and coal, decreased for
the year.

The non-ferrous metals manufacturing sector consists of the production of several metals including
zinc, lead and silver, but is dominated in energy consumption terms by the energy-intensive stages of
aluminium production, including alumina refining from bauxite, and aluminium smelting from
alumina. Those activities both decreased in 2021–22 (DISR 2023) in line with the 3 per cent decrease
in energy consumption in the sector.

Energy use in the chemicals sector also fell 4 per cent. This decline was particularly concentrated in
Victoria, where some large energy using businesses reduced activity, citing lower feedstock availability
with the closure of the refinery at Altona.

Around half of food product manufacturing energy consumption is the burning of cane waste
(bagasse) for heat energy at sugar mills. The 4 per cent decrease in total Australian bagasse
consumption in 2021–22, associated with a smaller 2021 sugar harvest, (ASMC 2023), left food
product manufacturing energy use down 1 per cent in 2021–22.

Energy use in the petroleum refining sector is calculated as total energy consumption (feedstock and
own use) minus derived fuel production. Energy use in this sector has reduced with refinery closures
in March 2021 at Kwinana in Western Australia and at Altona in Victoria in August 2021 but was flat
in year-to-year movement due to increased demand for transport fuels from the remaining refineries.


-----

|Table 8 Australian mining energy consumption, by subsector|Col2|Col3|Col4|Col5|
|---|---|---|---|---|
|2021–22 PJ 2021–22 share 2021–22 growth 10 year (per cent) (per cent) average annual growth (per cent)|||||
|Oil and gas|530.6|61.3|2.2|9.1|
|- LNG plants|379.1|43.8|3.4|13.3|
|Coal|152.2|17.6|-0.9|2.9|
|Other mining|235.3|27.2|2.8|4.4|
|Totala|865.9|100.0|1.8|6.8|


_a Consumption excludes consumption for generation of electricity, which is recorded in the electricity supply sector._

_Source: DCCEEW (2023) Australian Energy Statistics, Table F and internal sources_

Energy consumption in the mining sector was up 2 per cent in 2021–22 (Table 8), a slower rate of
growth than the 7 per cent ten-year average during which several liquefied natural gas (LNG) plants
opened, greatly expanded the energy use of the sector. LNG plants now constitute nearly half of all
mining sector energy use (Figure 9).

LNG plant energy activity increased 3 per cent in 2021–22, rebounding after a year which saw lower
exports due to operational shutdowns. LNG plant consumption figures exclude gas used for electricity
generation at gas processing and liquefaction plants (around 100 petajoules in 2021–22), which is
included in the electricity supply sector in consumption data in the AES. The figures do, however,
include consumption of the self-generated electricity.

In total, including the gas used to generate electricity, LNG plants accounted for just under 30 per cent
of Australian gas consumption in 2021–22. Excluding this usage, LNG plants accounted for 24 per cent.

Energy use in other mining, a broad category encompassing metals and minerals extraction, grew
3 per cent, as iron ore extraction grew 2 per cent (DISR 2023). Coal mining energy use fell 1 per cent,
which is in line with a decrease in production.


-----

#### Figure 9 Australian energy consumption in mining

_Source: DCCEEW (2023) Australian Energy Statistics, Table F and internal sources_

In the agriculture sector, energy consumption fell 3 per cent and in the small water supply and waste
sector, energy consumption fell 6 per cent. In both sectors, wetter climate conditions reduced demand
for energy use to pump water.

In 2021–22 total crop production volume grew 16 per cent while crop area only grew 2 per cent,
indicative of more productive growing conditions with less need for irrigation (ABARES 2022).

Energy consumption in the residential sector and in the commercial and services sector each grew
3 per cent in 2021–22 (Figure 10). Residential sector consumption includes the use of electricity
generated from rooftop solar photovoltaic (PV) systems and from the grid.

In the residential sector, increased electricity demand drove higher energy consumption, while natural
gas consumption declined. In the commercial sector, electricity and natural gas demand both rose
(AEMO 2022). Warmer summer weather and cooler winter weather compared to the previous year
contributed to increased demand in most of the country.

While this weather was a strong influence over higher consumption than the previous year, the
broader context of the ongoing influence of the pandemic and post-pandemic structural change also
remains.

Residential consumption during the COVID-19 era has been higher than seen at any point prior to
2020. Over the decade before the COVID-19 pandemic, residential consumption had risen below
population growth rates, as improving energy efficiency and changing consumer behaviour reduced
individual consumption levels. Per capita residential energy use therefore fell 10 per cent between
2009–10 and 2018–19. This trend has reversed during the pandemic, with residential energy use per
capita growing 2 per cent per year across the last three years.


-----

#### Figure 10 Energy use in commercial and services sector and residential sector

_Source: DCCEEW (2023) Australian Energy Statistics, Table E_

Lockdown restrictions continued into 2021–22, and there has been an ongoing shift of working
patterns, seeing more daytime residential energy demand. In August 2021, 41 per cent of employed
people reported regularly working from home, up from 32 per cent in 2019 (ABS 2022).

Conversely, COVID-19 activity reductions also affected the commercial and services sector in parts of
the country until late 2021 or even early 2022. This is an economic sector which collectively employs
around three quarters of Australian workers (ABS 2023c) and covers industries including retail and
wholesale trade, accommodation, food services, professional and technical services, health and
education, government, finance, and information and communications technology.

As lockdowns closed some commercial enterprises and more workers in some industries worked more
frequently from home, commercial sector energy consumption fell in 2019–20 and again in 2020–21.
Any further effects in 2021–22 appear to have been more limited, despite extended lockdowns in
Sydney and Melbourne well into the reference period. Instead, commercial sector consumption rose
alongside residential demand, driven by increased heating and cooling needs.


-----

### Final energy consumption

Final energy consumption is the energy used by the final or end-use sectors, a subset of total energy
consumption. Final energy is suited to the measurement of energy demand by the final consumer. It
includes all energy consumed, except energy that is used to convert or transform primary energy into
different forms of energy. For example, fuels consumed in the generation of electricity are excluded,
but the end use of electricity is included. Also excluded is refinery feedstock that is used to produce
petroleum products and fuels used in coke ovens and blast furnaces in iron and steel manufacturing.

|Table 9 Australian total final energy consumption, by fuel|Col2|Col3|Col4|Col5|
|---|---|---|---|---|
|2021–22 PJ 2021–22 2021–22 10 year share growth average (per cent) (per cent) annual growth (per cent)|||||
|Coal|104.3|2.5|0.9|-0.2|
|Gas|994.0|23.9|0.2|2.7|
|Refined products|2,004.5|48.3|1.0|-0.4|
|Electricity|872.6|21.0|2.1|1.0|
|- Generated from coal|429.3|10.3|-4.9|-2.4|
|- Generated from gas|158.4|3.8|-1.2|0.3|
|- Generated from oil|15.0|0.4|-0.1|5.7|
|- Generated from renewables|269.9|6.5|18.5|12.3|
|Renewables|178.1|4.3|-0.1|-0.2|
|Total|4,153.5|100.0|1.0|0.5|



_Notes: Total Final Energy Consumption excludes the coal, gas, renewables, and other energy used for electricity generation_
_and other conversion. Electricity consumption breakdown by generation source is derived from total generation share._

_Source: DCCEEW (2023) Australian Energy Statistics, Tables H, O_

Final energy consumption grew 1 per cent in 2021–22 (Table 9 and Table 10). Electricity consumption,
up 2 per cent, was the main driver of growth. There was a 42 petajoule growth in apparent final
consumption of renewable electricity (apportioning electricity consumption according to the total
generation mix). This means that in the current year, renewable electricity growth more than
accounted for the entire (40 petajoule) increase in end user consumption.

Refined products currently constitute nearly half of all final energy consumption, with diesel alone
having surpassed electricity as a final consumption fuel in the last decade (Figure 11).


-----

#### Figure 11 Australian final energy consumption, refined products and electricity

_Source: DCCEEW (2023) Australian Energy Statistics, Tables F, H_

In most industries, consumption is similar or identical between consumption (Table 5) earlier in this
chapter, and final consumption (Table 10). However, in contrast to the slight decline in overall
consumption, Australian final consumption grew 1 per cent.

The difference is the activity of sectors such as electricity generation and petroleum refining, whose
consumption is not part of final consumption. In particular, as thermal electricity generation declines,
the electricity sector exhibits lower consumption of energy (ie thermal losses) to provide the same
final consumption of electricity.

This higher level of growth in final energy demand illustrates how a focus on end-use sectors can paint
a more accurate picture of energy demand from the perspective of consumer need.


-----

|Table 10 Australian total final energy consumption, by industry|Col2|Col3|Col4|Col5|
|---|---|---|---|---|
|2021–22 PJ 2021–22 share 2021–22 growth 10 year (per cent) (per cent) average annual growth (per cent)|||||
|Transport|1,426.6|34.3|1.8|-0.7|
|Mining|865.9|20.8|1.8|6.8|
|Manufacturing|852.1|20.5|-1.7|-1.7|
|Residential|497.7|12.0|2.8|0.9|
|Commercial|296.1|7.1|2.8|0.3|
|Agriculture|114.6|2.8|-3.5|1.6|
|Construction|37.2|0.9|-3.5|1.7|
|Water and Waste|17.8|0.4|-5.7|1.4|
|Other|45.6|1.1|-1.0|-1.9|
|Total|4,153.5|100.0|1.0|0.5|


_Note: Energy consumption in some sectors differs from Table 5 due to exclusion of energy used for conversion activities and_
_for own use in conversion sectors, such as electricity generation, petroleum refining and coke ovens._

_Source: DCCEEW (2023) Australian Energy Statistics, Table H_

### Energy consumption, by state and territory

In 2021–22, energy use decreased in South Australia, New South Wales and Queensland and rose
elsewhere (Table 11).

In South Australia, a 2 per cent reduction was driven by the substantial replacement of gas-fired
electricity generation with wind and solar, reducing the consumption (thermal losses) in that sector.
Consumption in most end use sectors still increased in South Australia.

|Table 11 Australian energy consumption, by state and territory|Col2|Col3|Col4|Col5|
|---|---|---|---|---|
|2021–22 PJ 2021–22 share 2021–22 growth 10 year (per cent) (per cent) average annual growth (per cent)|||||
|New South Walesa|1,374.4|23.9|-1.9|-1.6|
|Victoria|1,146.1|19.9|1.6|-2.4|
|Queensland|1,427.8|24.8|-1.0|0.8|
|Western Australia|1,257.8|21.8|1.5|2.5|
|South Australia|301.1|5.2|-2.5|-0.2|
|Tasmania|105.0|1.8|1.9|-0.2|
|Northern Territory|149.8|2.6|3.0|4.3|
|Australia|5,762.1|100.0|-0.1|-0.2|



_Note: a Includes Australian Capital Territory_

_Source: DCCEEW (2023) Australian Energy Statistics, Table C_


-----

Victoria’s energy consumption rose 2 per cent, with increased road and air transport activity after the
previous year’s steep COVID-induced declines. Air transport, especially, grew strongly, increasing
52 per cent on the previous year as more domestic and international flights returned to Melbourne.

In New South Wales (including the Australian Capital Territory), energy consumption fell 2 per cent
due mostly to a 8 per cent decline in road transport activity, which was the result of extended
lockdowns and movement restrictions between Sydney, regional NSW, and borders in the second half
of 2021. New South Wales remained by far the largest state for international air transport with
international flight activity becoming more concentrated in Sydney during the pandemic. New South
Wales’ share of Australian international air transport energy use was 55 per cent in 2021-22,
compared to a 46 per cent share three years earlier, pre-pandemic.

Energy consumption in the electricity supply sector fell in most states due to the replacement of
thermal generation sources such as coal and gas with non-thermal renewables. Thermal generation
was displaced most prominently by solar power in New South Wales, South Australia and Queensland,
and wind in Victoria.

The decline of coal consumption for electricity supply in Queensland drove that state’s overall energy
use decline, as energy consumption in most Queensland end use sectors still increased.

Tasmania recorded an increase in energy use by the electricity supply sector due to higher total
generation, all from hydro power, resulting in more network losses (recorded as consumption of
electricity).

Western Australia saw Australia’s only increase in coal-fired power generation activity for the year.
Energy use in Western Australia, more broadly, increased 2 per cent. The state remained largely
unaffected by internal COVID restrictions, meaning road transport activity was still 99 per cent of
pre-pandemic levels and increased from the previous year. Commercial and residential energy use
both rose due to weather factors.

Northern Territory’s 3 per cent increase in energy use can be attributed to higher energy use at large
LNG plants after prior operational shutdowns, and to higher residential electricity use. Another factor
was a tripling in international aviation energy activity, reaching record levels, largely a result of the
scheduling of non-stop flights between Darwin and London which temporarily replaced Perth routes.
The fuelling of international flights at Australian airports forms part of air transport energy use, and
previous Darwin flights were generally much shorter journeys within Southeast Asia (BITRE 2023b),
requiring less fuel.


-----

#### Figure 12 Australian energy mix, by state and territory, 2021–22

_NSW includes Australian Capital Territory_

_Source: DCCEEW (2023) Australian Energy Statistics, Table C_

The mix of fuels used in each Australian state and territory varies widely, driven by activities such as
electricity generation and liquefied natural gas exports (Figure 12).

All six states’ energy use includes oil as over a one-third share, which reflects the importance of oil
products to transport activities in Australia. In New South Wales (40 per cent) and
Queensland (35 per cent), oil has now surpassed coal as the largest energy source.

Natural gas accounted for nearly three-quarters of all energy use in Northern Territory and just over
half in Western Australia in 2021–22. LNG plants in these two jurisdictions consume natural gas as
they liquefy it for export, and gas is also the majority source for electricity generation.

Tasmania (46 per cent) and South Australia (16 per cent) are proportionally the heaviest users of
renewable energy, due respectively to hydro power in Tasmania and wind and solar power in South
Australia. Western Australia at 3 per cent and Northern Territory at 1 per cent have the lowest shares
of renewable energy.

New South Wales’ energy mix contains the largest share of coal, 39 per cent, due to the high
percentage of electricity generation from coal. Northern Territory uses no coal and the coal shares in
Western Australia, South Australia and Tasmania are also below 10 per cent.

Over the last few decades, energy consumption has grown much faster in the resources-focused
economies of Queensland, Western Australia, and Northern Territory, compared with the remainder
of Australia (Figure 13). Some energy consumption growth can be attributed to increased resources
sector activity including the opening of LNG plants. Population growth has also contributed. These
three jurisdictions have seen populations more than double since 1980, above Australia’s overall
growth.


-----

#### Figure 13 Australian energy consumption growth, selected states and territories

_Source: DCCEEW (2023) Australian Energy Statistics, Table C_


-----

## Energy production

### Primary production

Energy production is defined as the total amount of primary energy produced in the Australian
economy, measured before consumption or transformation into secondary energy products. Forms
of renewable energy that produce electricity directly without a thermal component, such as wind,
hydro and solar PV, are also considered primary energy sources. Coal-fired electricity generation is
considered secondary energy production and is not included, as the coal is already accounted for when
mined.

Production of primary energy rose 1 per cent in 2021–22, amounting to 19,111 petajoules (Table 12).
Increased natural gas production underpinned the increase, offsetting lower black coal production.

|Table 12 Australian energy production, by fuel type|Col2|Col3|Col4|Col5|
|---|---|---|---|---|
|2021–22 PJ 2021–22 share 2021–22 growth 10 year (per cent) (per cent) average annual growth (per cent)|||||
|Black coal|11,215.7|58.7|-1.3|1.3|
|Brown coal|415.7|2.2|-3.3|-5.7|
|Natural gas|6,076.0|31.8|6.0|10.9|
|Oil and NGL|723.0|3.8|0.6|-2.0|
|LPG|168.3|0.9|14.8|6.7|
|Renewables|512.5|2.7|10.3|5.7|
|Total|19,111.2|100.0|1.4|3.1|



_Source: DCCEEW (2023) Australian Energy Statistics, Table J_

Australia is a substantial net exporter of energy, including coal and natural gas, with net exports
(exports less imports) equating to over two-thirds of production (Figure 14).

At 11,216 petajoules (417 million tonnes), black coal remained by far Australia’s largest contributor to
energy production, with New South Wales and Queensland producing almost all black coal in Australia.
Black coal production continued to be hampered by flooding and storm damage at pits, ports and rail
infrastructure (DISR 2023), and was also impacted by China’s restriction on coal imports from Australia
until early 2023.

Brown coal production fell 3 per cent in 2021–22 to 416 petajoules (40 million tonnes). Almost all
brown coal produced in Australia is used for electricity generation. Brown coal production has declined
across the decade and was 55 per cent of its peak production quantity in 2009–10.


-----

#### Figure 14 Australian energy balance

_Note: Production equals Consumption plus Net exports, difference between these is statistical discrepancy._

_Source: DCCEEW (2023) Australian Energy Statistics, Tables C, J_

Natural gas production increased 6 per cent in 2021–22 to 6,076 petajoules (162 billion cubic metres).
Production increases represent a return to previous levels after operational shutdowns the previous
year. Western Australia remained Australia’s largest producer of natural gas with 3,732 petajoules
(99 billion cubic metres), well over half of total gas production. Western Australia produces over three
times the quantity of gas it did a decade ago.

Queensland gas production of 1,541 petajoules (41 billion cubic metres) in 2021–22 was more than
five times the level of a decade ago. Coal seam gas accounted for around one-quarter of Australian
gas production on an energy content basis, and over two-thirds of east coast gas production.

Australia produced 723 petajoules (20 billion litres) of crude oil and natural gas liquids in 2021–22,
similar to last year. Naturally-occurring LPG production, typically linked to gas or oil production, grew
15 per cent to 168 petajoules (6 billion litres) in 2021–22.

Renewable energy production continued its long-term growth record, increasing 10 per cent to reach
513 petajoules in 2021–22. Wind and solar were the major sources of growth but hydro power also
increased. Renewable energy accounted for 3 per cent of total energy production in
2021–22 (Figure 15).


-----

#### Figure 15 Australian energy production, by fuel type

_Source: DCCEEW (2023) Australian Energy Statistics, Table J_

Australia also produces uranium oxide, which is exported for use in nuclear power plants overseas.
After the Ranger mine closed in 2021, uranium oxide production fell 28 per cent in 2021–22 to
4,485 tonnes, the lowest level since 1995. The International Energy Agency (IEA) measures the energy
of nuclear fuels by the heat content of steam produced in nuclear reactors. Uranium oxide is therefore
not counted towards primary energy production in Australia as Australia has no nuclear power
generation.

### Electricity generation

In 2021–22 total electricity generation in Australia increased 2 per cent, to around 272 terawatt hours
(978 petajoules), as demand increased across much of the country due to warmer and cooler weather
at different points of the year (Table 13).

These figures capture all electricity generation in Australia. In addition to power plant output, it
includes rooftop solar PV generation, generation by industrial facilities such as in mining and
manufacturing, off-grid generation, and own-use of electricity at power plants. The inclusion of these
components contributes to the difference in generation to that reported by the Australian Energy
Market Operator.


-----

|Table 13 Australian electricity generation, by fuel type|Col2|Col3|Col4|Col5|
|---|---|---|---|---|
|2021–22 2021–22 2021–22 10 year GWh share growth average (per cent) (per cent) annual growth (per cent)|||||
|Fossil fuels|187,536|69.1|-3.7|-1.8|
|Black coal|101,076|37.2|-4.9|-1.4|
|Brown coal|32,516|12.0|-4.5|-5.1|
|Gas|49,280|18.1|-1.0|0.1|
|Oil|4,664|1.7|0.0|5.6|
|Renewables|83,996|30.9|18.6|12.2|
|Solar PV|34,687|12.8|25.1|29.8|
|- large scale|12,569|4.6|30.4|na|
|- small scale|22,117|8.1|22.3|24.1|
|Wind|29,108|10.7|18.6|15.4|
|Hydro|17,011|6.3|11.9|1.9|
|Bioenergy|3,190|1.2|-4.7|0.5|
|- bagasse|1,111|0.4|-8.0|na|
|- wood and othera|649|0.2|-11.0|na|
|- landfill biogas|1,099|0.4|-1.2|na|
|- sludge biogas and biofuels|274|0.1|13.1|na|
|- municipal and industrial waste|57|0.0|2.7|na|
|Total|271,532|100.0|2.3|0.8|


_Notes: a includes wood waste, charcoal, sulphite lyes and other biomass_

_na – not available_

_Source: DCCEEW (2023) Australian Energy Statistics, Table O_

Coal-fired generation fell 5 per cent in 2021–22, with black and brown coal-fired generation both
individually falling 5 per cent. Coal remained the predominant source for electricity generation,
although its share in the fuel mix fell below half, to 49 per cent, for the first time in 2021–22.

Coal’s generation share has declined markedly from 68 per cent a decade ago, and a historical peak
around 84 per cent in the late 1990s (Figure 17). In absolute terms there was 28 per cent less coalfired generation in Australia than the peak level of 187 terawatt hours in 2006–07.


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#### Figure 16 Australian electricity generation

_Sources: DCCEEW (2023) Australian Energy Statistics, Table O; International Energy Agency (2023), World Energy Balances_

#### Figure 17 Australian electricity generation fuel mix

_Source: DCCEEW (2023) Australian Energy Statistics, Table O_


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Renewable generation increased 19 per cent in 2021–22, accounting for 31 per cent of Australia’s
electricity generation, up four percentage points from 27 per cent last year. Renewable generation
grew further in the 2022 calendar year (Figure 16).

#### Figure 18 Australian electricity generation from renewable sources, by fuel

_Source: DCCEEW (2023) Australian Energy Statistics, Table O_

Now the largest contributor to renewable generation, solar power grew fastest again in 2021–22,
widening the gap between solar power and wind generation. Solar PV accounted for 41 per cent of all
renewable generation (Figure 18) and for 13 per cent of total electricity generation in Australia.

Solar electricity growth has been very rapid, growing an average of 30 per cent per year over the last
decade. Large-scale, or utility-scale, generation has grown especially quickly in recent years, rising
from nearly nothing about 7 years ago (Figure 19).

Wind generation rose 19 per cent in 2021–22 to contribute 11 per cent of total generation. Hydro
power accounted for 6 per cent of total generation, growing 12 per cent due to increased generation
in both Tasmania and New South Wales. As the composition of renewable energy has diversified
significantly in Australia, the share of hydro in total renewable generation has fallen from 95 per cent
in 2000–01 to 20 per cent in 2021–22.

Though now much less significant than non-thermal renewables, the use of bioenergy for electricity
generation has long been a part of Australia’s electricity mix, with bagasse generation in the sugar
industry, and generation from landfill biogas being the predominant sources of electricity from
bioenergy. Bioenergy generation fell 5 per cent in 2021–22, with most sources declining.


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#### Figure 19 Cumulative capacity of accredited large-scale solar power stations

_Source: Clean Energy Regulator (2023), Historical Large-scale Renewable Energy Target supply data_

Natural gas-fired generation fell 1 per cent in 2021–22 and its share in Australia’s electricity generation
also fell to 18 per cent, the lowest level in a decade. Gas-fired generation fell in the largest
gas-generating states of Western Australia (down 1 per cent), Queensland (down 8 per cent) and
South Australia (down 23 per cent), but did grow in the smaller gas generation states of New South
Wales and Victoria after a large dip the previous year.

Contributing factors to lower gas generation included higher gas prices and negative electricity
wholesale prices during parts of the year. One notable factor contributing to the lowest South
Australian gas-fired generation level in decades was the completion of four synchronous condensers
in October 2021, which are spinning motors that reduce the need for gas generation to maintain grid
stability in the heavily renewables dominated South Australian network (ElectraNet, 2023).

Oil-fired generation was steady in 2021–22 and contributed just under 2 per cent of Australia’s
electricity generation. As a source of electricity generation, oil is most prevalent in Northern Territory
(9 per cent) and Western Australia (5 per cent) where diesel and fuel oil generation is traditionally
common in remote areas far from gas, hydro and coal supply.

Electricity generation rose most strongly in Tasmania in 2021–22, up 13 per cent, with 17 per cent
growth in hydro generation the primary driver. Full dams and generally favourable market conditions
for hydro power meant that generation for export to the mainland increased in Tasmania (AEMO
2022). A 3 per cent increase in New South Wales generation was also driven partly by a 12 per cent
increase in hydro output, which occurred for similar reasons to Tasmania.

About 19 per cent of Australia’s electricity was generated by households and businesses outside the
electricity sector (Figure 20). 38 per cent of electricity in Western Australia and 53 per cent in Northern
Territory was generated by the mining and manufacturing sectors. Generation by sector is estimated
using the industry classification reported by the facility, which does not differentiate between on-grid


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and off-grid generation. Mining and manufacturing generation in the north and west can include onsite systems as well as contributors to electricity grid supply to population areas.

The share of total generation by the other industries and residential solar generation sector varies
considerably but it is the second largest sector for electricity generation in all five states which are
part of the National Electricity Market, varying from 19 per cent in South Australia to 2 per cent in
Tasmania. This sector is largely dominated by solar PV generation by households, but some PV and
other generation are also undertaken by a variety of business sectors.

#### Figure 20 Australian electricity generation, by industry, 2021–22

_Note: NSW includes Australian Capital Territory_

_Source: DCCEEW (2023) Australian Energy Statistics, Table O_


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### The National Electricity Market

Electricity generation discussed in the previous section covers all generation of electricity in Australia,
including remote and off-grid locations, generation for own-use by mining or manufacturing
businesses, and distributed solar PV generation regardless of location.

In 2021–22 about 76 per cent of Australian electricity generation was metered generation occurring
on the largest national grid, the National Electricity Market (NEM). The NEM covers much of the
populated area of the south and east of Australia, stretching from Port Douglas in Queensland to Port
Lincoln in South Australia, and also extending to Tasmania. These areas are all physically linked by a
network of transmission lines and high voltage direct current links between states.

Metered electricity generation in the NEM has remained fairly steady in recent years, sitting between
202 and 207 terawatt hours since 2016–17.

|Table 14 National Electricity Market metered electricity generation, by fuel type|Col2|Col3|Col4|Col5|
|---|---|---|---|---|
|2021–22 2021–22 2021–22 5 year GWh share growth average (per cent) (per cent) annual growth (per cent)|||||
|Fossil fuels|137,617|66.6|-4.9|-4.1|
|Black coal|91,609|44.3|-5.7|-3.1|
|Brown coal|32,548|15.8|-4.6|-5.7|
|Gas|13,339|6.5|0.0|-6.4|
|Oil|121|0.1|141.9|2.9|
|Renewables|68,793|33.3|18.1|15.6|
|Solar PV|27,625|13.4|24.5|32.1|
|- large scale|10,076|4.9|29.1|78.0|
|- small scale|17,548|8.5|22.0|22.7|
|Wind|24,713|12.0|16.6|18.5|
|Hydro|16,273|7.9|11.2|1.0|
|Bioenergy|161|0.1|-11.0|-13.2|
|Total|206,618|100.0|1.8|0.4|



_Source: Global-Roam (2023) NEM Review 6 software_

_Note: Data includes metered generation and rooftop PV. Excludes batteries._

The renewables share of metered electricity generation in the NEM in 2021–22 was 33 per cent (Table
14), slightly above total electricity generation in Australia as a whole at 31 per cent (Table 13).

Renewables generation increased 18 per cent in the NEM in 2021–22 while fossil fuel generation fell
5 per cent. Over the last five years, renewable generation in the NEM grew an average of 16 per cent
per year while fossil fuel generation fell 4 per cent per year.

In the last five years, gas-fired generation in the NEM has declined an average of 6 per cent per year,
faster than other fossil fuels (Figure 21). Over two thirds of Australian gas-fired generation occurs


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outside the NEM, principally in Western Australia and the Northern Territory, with substantial volumes
generated by LNG production plants and at other off-grid facilities which generate electricity for their
own use.

#### Figure 21 National Electricity Market metered electricity generation fuel mix

_Source: Global-Roam (2023) NEM Review 6 software_

_Note: Data includes metered generation and rooftop PV. Excludes batteries. ‘Other’ includes oil products and bagasse._


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### Estimated electricity generation in calendar year 2022

The trends in generation in 2021–22 discussed in the previous sections are important contributors to
trends in Australia’s overall energy supply and use in that year. More recent estimates of electricity
generation were published in June 2023 for the calendar year 2022, to improve the availability of
up-to-date official data on total generation in Australia. The calendar year numbers are estimates
drawn from several different sources as there is no reliable single source of calendar year data
available. The methodology differs from the financial year estimates, which are largely based on data
from the NGER Scheme. Please see the Guide to the Australian Energy Statistics for more information.

Total electricity generation in Australia was estimated to be 273 terawatt hours in calendar year 2022,
up 2 per cent compared to 2021 (Table 15).

|Table 15 Australian electricity generation, by fuel type, calendar year 2022|Col2|Col3|
|---|---|---|
|2022 share 2022 GWh (per cent)|||
|Fossil fuels|185,057|67.7|
|Black coal|97,540|35.7|
|Brown coal|31,411|11.5|
|Gas|51,505|18.8|
|Oil|4,601|1.7|
|Renewables|88,208|32.3|
|Solar PV|37,917|13.9|
|- large scale|14,039|5.1|
|- small scale|23,879|8.7|
|Wind|29,810|10.9|
|Hydro|17,379|6.4|
|Bioenergy|3,102|1.1|
|Total|273,265|100.0|



_Source: DCCEEW (2023) Australian Energy Statistics, Table O_

Fossil fuel sources contributed 185 terawatt hours (68 per cent) of total electricity generation in 2022,
down 3 percentage points on 2021. Coal-fired generation was 47 per cent per cent of total generation
in 2022, continuing its long-term decline.

In addition to the long-term and ongoing trend of coal-fired generation decline, electricity generation
fuel source trends during 2022 may also have been influenced by the dynamics of a global energy price
crisis. Black coal output was negatively impacted by disruptions to fuel supply, increased reliability
issues for coal generators, and a spike in global coal prices stemming from Russia’s invasion of Ukraine.
These events led to greater use of fuels such as gas and hydro for electricity generation, in place of
coal.

Gas-fired generation in 2022 was 19 per cent of total generation, up 1 percentage point on 2021 and
also higher than in the earlier 2021–22 financial year. The Australian Energy Market Operator reported
that in the last quarter of 2021, gas fired generation within the National Electricity Market reached its
lowest level since 2003 (AEMO 2022). It then recovered into 2022.


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Renewable sources contributed 88 terawatt hours, or about 32 per cent of total electricity generation
in 2022. This share was up 3 percentage points on 2021. This represents the highest share of total
generation on record, a share 1 per cent higher than the earlier 2021–22 financial year.

The historical peak of renewables share of total generation recorded was 26 per cent in 1964–65 as
capacity in the Snowy Mountains hydroelectric scheme progressively came online (Figure 22) during
a broader post-war expansion of electricity generation. At that time, about 9 terawatt hours of
renewable electricity was generated, much lower than today’s volumes.

The largest source of renewable generation in 2022 was solar (14 per cent of total generation),
followed by wind (11 per cent) and hydro (6 per cent).

#### Figure 22 Australian electricity generation share from renewable sources

_Source: DCCEEW (2023) Australian Energy Statistics, Table O; International Energy Agency (2023), World Energy Balances_

Generation sources vary across Australia. In 2022, despite continuing to recede, coal-fired generation
continued to be the major source of electricity generation in New South Wales (63 per cent),
Queensland (62 per cent) and Victoria (58 per cent) (Figure 23). In Victoria the generation is brown
coal-fired and in Queensland and New South Wales, black coal.

Gas accounted for the majority of generation in Western Australia and the Northern Territory, and
around one-quarter of South Australian generation. Western Australia accounted for just over half of
Australia’s gas-fired generation in 2022. In Northern Territory, Queensland, and Western Australia,
gas-fired generation includes on-site generation at LNG plants, most of which are isolated systems not
supplying the main state grid.

The renewable energy share of generation in 2022 was 98 per cent in Tasmania and 71 per cent in
South Australia. In Tasmania, 80 per cent of all generation was hydro, while in South Australia, wind
accounted for 44 per cent of generation and solar another 26 per cent.


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New South Wales and Queensland were the main producers of large-scale solar electricity with 40 and
32 per cent of Australia’s utility scale solar power respectively. They were also (both 28 per cent) the
leading producers of small-scale solar electricity.

#### Figure 23 Australian electricity generation fuel mix, calendar year 2022

_Note: NSW includes Australian Capital Territory_

_Source: DCCEEW (2023) Australian Energy Statistics, Table O_


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## Energy trade

### Exports

Australia exports most of its energy production, with exports equal to 82 per cent of production in
2021–22. Australia also exports much more than it imports, with net exports (exports minus imports)
equal to 71 per cent of production.

91 per cent of black coal energy production was exported, as was 76 per cent of domestic natural gas
production and 86 per cent of crude oil production. Australia’s energy exports grew 1 per cent in
2021–22 to 15,623 petajoules, with liquefied natural gas driving the growth (Table 16; Figure 25).

|Table 16 Australian energy exports, by fuel type|Col2|Col3|Col4|Col5|
|---|---|---|---|---|
|2021–22 PJ 2021–22 share 2021–22 growth 10 year (per cent) (per cent) average annual growth (per cent)|||||
|Black coal|10,173.5|65.1|-1.5|1.8|
|Coal by-products|22.1|0.1|-2.5|3.1|
|LNG|4,636.8|29.7|7.5|16.1|
|Crude oil|622.9|4.0|5.0|-0.3|
|LPG|149.2|1.0|15.7|10.1|
|Refined products|18.8|0.1|-50.5|-8.8|
|Total|15,623.2|100.0|1.3|4.2|



_na – not available_

_Source: DCCEEW (2023) Australian Energy Statistics, Table J_

Black coal remains Australia’s largest energy export in energy content terms (Figure 25) and about
two-thirds of all exported energy. Exports of black coal fell 1 per cent in 2021–22 in energy content
terms, to 10,173 petajoules (around 359 million tonnes). China’s restrictions on Australian coal
imports in addition to storm-related disruptions and floods, contributed to lower coal exports (DISR
2022). Coal exports grew an average of 2 per cent per year over the last decade.

LNG exports grew 7 per cent in 2021–22, to 4,637 petajoules (around 83 million tonnes). The increase
was partly due to a rebound from outage and maintenance impacts the previous year, and also driven
by higher post-lockdown gas demand in Asian markets and disruptions to Russian exports following
the invasion of Ukraine (DISR 2022). Exports of LNG have increased an average of 16 per cent a year
over the past decade, with several new facilities commencing production in that period.

Crude oil exports rose 5 per cent in 2021–22 to 623 petajoules (17 billion litres) reflecting increased
production at some of the same facilities that produce LNG.

Australia exports a small volume of refined products, though very little of Australian production is
exported. Refined products exports halved with diesel, fuel oil and other product exports all
decreasing substantially.


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#### Figure 24 Australian energy trade, 2021–22

_Source: DCCEEW (2023) Australian Energy Statistics, Table J_

#### Figure 25 Australian energy exports, by fuel type

_Source: DCCEEW (2023) Australian Energy Statistics, Table J_

Australia also exports large volumes of uranium oxide, which is enriched overseas for use in nuclear
power plants. Australia is ranked first for uranium resources and was the world’s fourth largest
producer in 2022 (World Nuclear Association, 2023). Uranium is not included in energy production or
energy exports in the Australian Energy Statistics because it is not included in a country’s energy
balance. Instead, the heat content of the steam leaving the nuclear reactor for the turbine is counted,
which is not applicable for Australia.

Lower production due to mine closure resulted in uranium exports decreasing 20 per cent in
2021–22, to 4,933 tonnes (Figure 26). While Australia exports all of its uranium production, the
production and export figures can differ due to stockpiling and shipment timing.


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#### Figure 26 Australian uranium exports

_Source: DCCEEW (2023) Australian Energy Statistics, Table S_


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### Imports

Australia’s energy imports grew 1 per cent in 2021–22 to 2,129 petajoules (Table 17). Though imports
were steady overall, the composition of imports changed substantially due to the closure of two
refineries and Australia meeting more of the increased demand for refined products with imports.

|Table 17 Australian energy imports, by fuel type|Col2|Col3|Col4|Col5|
|---|---|---|---|---|
|2021–22 PJ 2021–22 share 2021–22 growth 10 year (per cent) (per cent) average annual growth (per cent)|||||
|Crude oil|386.6|18.2|-29.3|-10.3|
|LPG|20.5|1.0|21.7|-2.4|
|Refined products|1,554.6|73.0|16.9|7.3|
|Natural gas|152.1|7.1|-26.7|-2.4|
|Coal and coal byproducts|15.3|0.7|22.6|17.3|
|Total|2,129.0|100.0|0.7|0.0|



_Source: DCCEEW (2023) Australian Energy Statistics, Table J_

Refined products and crude oil are by far Australia’s largest energy imports (Figure 24), with
the majority of consumption of these commodities met by imports.

Imports of crude oil decreased 29 per cent in 2021–22, to 387 petajoules (around 10 billion litres). This
reflects the fall in refinery production following the closure of the Kwinana and Altona refineries in
2021.

Imported crude oil accounted for nearly two-thirds of total refinery input in 2021–22 (Figure 27). Most
of Australia’s oil production occurs off the north-west coast, far from most domestic refining capacity
in major cities.

Refined product imports grew 17 per cent to 1,555 petajoules (around 41 billion litres) in 2021–22.
This growth was a product both of rising demand for refined products such as aviation turbine fuel
and diesel, but also the shift from domestic refinery production to imports to meet this demand.
Imported products accounted for around 74 per cent of total refined product consumption, the
highest level on record (Figure 28).

Natural gas imports are solely the gas produced in the Joint Petroleum Development Area which is
sent by pipeline to be liquefied in Darwin for export. The import volume fell 27 per cent in 2021–22
due to natural field output decline (Santos, 2023).


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#### Figure 27 Australian energy imports, by fuel type

_Source: DCCEEW (2023) Australian Energy Statistics, Table J_

#### Figure 28 Share of imports in total consumption of crude and refined products

_Note: Refinery closures marked by year._

_Source: DCCEEW (2023) Australian Energy Statistics, Tables D, J_


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## References

Australian Bureau of Agricultural and Resource Economics and Sciences (2022), Agricultural
commodities, Canberra.

Australian Bureau of Statistics (2020), Survey of Motor Vehicle Use, Australia, Canberra.

Australian Bureau of Statistics (2021), Motor Vehicle Census, Australia, Canberra.

Australian Bureau of Statistics (2022), Working Arrangements, Canberra.

Australian Bureau of Statistics (2023a), Australian System of National Accounts, Canberra.

Australian Bureau of Statistics (2023b), Overseas Arrivals and Departures, Australia, Canberra.

Australian Bureau of Statistics (2023c), Labour Account Australia, Canberra.

Australian Energy Market Operator (2020 to 2022), Quarterly Energy Dynamics, various editions,
Melbourne.

Australian Sugar Milling Council (2023), Sugar Industry Summary Statistics, Brisbane.

Bureau of Infrastructure and Transport Research Economics (2023a), Australian Infrastructure
Statistics—Yearbook 2022, Canberra.

Bureau of Infrastructure and Transport Research Economics (2023b), Aviation Statistics, Canberra.

Clean Energy Regulator (2023), Historical Large-scale Renewable Energy Target supply data, Canberra.

Department of Climate Change, Energy, the Environment and Water (2023a), Australian Energy
Statistics, Canberra, September.

Department of Climate Change, Energy, the Environment and Water (2023b), Australian Petroleum
Statistics, Canberra, May.

Department of Climate Change, Energy, the Environment and Water (2023c), Guide to the Australian
Energy Statistics, Canberra, September.

Department of Industry, Science and Resources (2021 to 2022), Resources and Energy Quarterly,
various editions, Canberra, July.

ElectraNet (2023), Power System Strength project, Adelaide

Global-Roam (2023), NEM Review 6 software, Brisbane.

International Energy Agency (2022), World Energy Balances, Paris.

Santos (2023) Annual Report 2022, Adelaide

World Nuclear Association (2022), World Uranium Mining Production, London.


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